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Methodisches Konstruieren: Grundlagen, Methodik, praktische Beispiele (Konstruktionsbücher #27)
by Wolf G. Rodenacker
Methodological Advances in Experimental Philosophy (Advances in Experimental Philosophy)
by Eugen Fischer Mark CurtisUntil recently, experimental philosophy has been associated with the questionnaire-based study of intuitions. This volume brings together established and emerging research leaders from several areas of experimental philosophy to explore how new empirical methods from the behavioural sciences and digital humanities can contribute to philosophical debates.Each chapter offers an accessible overview of these exciting innovations, demonstrating their application in a key area of philosophy and discussing their strengths and limitations. Methods covered include eye tracking, virtual reality technology, neuroimaging, statistical learning and experimental economics as well as corpus linguistics, visualisation techniques and data and text mining. The volume explores their use in moral philosophy and moral psychology, epistemology, philosophy of science, metaphysics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind and the history of ideas. Methodological Advances in Experimental Philosophy is essential reading for undergraduates, graduate students and researchers working in experimental philosophy.
Methodological Advances in Experimental Philosophy (Advances in Experimental Philosophy)
by Eugen Fischer Mark CurtisUntil recently, experimental philosophy has been associated with the questionnaire-based study of intuitions. This volume brings together established and emerging research leaders from several areas of experimental philosophy to explore how new empirical methods from the behavioural sciences and digital humanities can contribute to philosophical debates.Each chapter offers an accessible overview of these exciting innovations, demonstrating their application in a key area of philosophy and discussing their strengths and limitations. Methods covered include eye tracking, virtual reality technology, neuroimaging, statistical learning and experimental economics as well as corpus linguistics, visualisation techniques and data and text mining. The volume explores their use in moral philosophy and moral psychology, epistemology, philosophy of science, metaphysics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind and the history of ideas. Methodological Advances in Experimental Philosophy is essential reading for undergraduates, graduate students and researchers working in experimental philosophy.
Methodological and Historical Essays in the Natural and Social Sciences (Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science #14)
by Robert S. Cohen Marx W. WartofskyModem philosophy of science has turned out to be a Pandora's box. Once opened, the puzzling monsters appeared: not only was the neat structure of classical physics radically changed, but a variety of broader questions were let loose, bearing on the nature of scientific inquiry and of human knowledge in general. Philosophy of science could not help becoming epistemological and historical, and could no longer avoid metaphysical questions, even when these were posed in disguise. Once the identification of scientific methodology with that of physics had been queried, not only did biology and psychology come under scrutiny as major modes of scientific inquiry, but so too did history and the social sciences - particularly economics, sociology and anthropology. And now, new 'monsters' are emerging - for example, medicine and political science as disciplined inquiries. This raises anew a much older question, namely whether the conception of science is to be distinguished from a wider conception of learning and inquiry? Or is science to be more deeply understood as the most adequate form of learning and inquiry, whose methods reach every domain of rational thought? Is modern science matured reason, or is it simply one historically adapted and limited species of western reason? In our colloquia at Boston University, over the past fourteen years, we have been probing and testing the scope of philosophy of science.
Methodological Approaches in Physical Geography (Geography of the Physical Environment)
by Firuza Begham MustafaGeography science aims to observe the dynamics in describing earth's surface as a place and space for humans to carry out their lives, starting from simple identification using recording and sketching models, then utilizing tools such as maps, satellite imagery, statistics and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). In the development of geography science, it is appropriate to explain phenomena of the earth in the present context along with the process of developing science and technology using suitable and effective methods. Physical geography is the branch of natural science that deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This book covers the methodology of the study for all aspects of physical geography, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere. A comprehensive geography textbook consists of a detailed research methodology for physical geography research including a few selected case studies in Asia. The uniqueness of this book is due to the contribution of several professors and subject experts from South East and East Asia with special particular reference to cases studies from a particular region. This book covered selected methodological approaches for hydrology, climatology and geomorphology including the discovery of the best method for exploring and assessing mysterious physical phenomena using a diversity of methodologies. This book explains the principal concept, basic method, optional method, detailed description of each method, and the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods. The technique of data selection, data acquisition, method of analysis, data interpretation and data analysis techniques with a specific focus on deterministic modeling, geography techniques, geospatial modeling with Geographic Information System (GIS), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), and Automated machine techniques and combination of statistical analysis. This book attempts to explore different approaches, methodological possibilities and challenges in conducting geographical research in physical geography. New digital geographic data sources and GIS applications can help researchers to receive clearer concepts and obtain better measurements of the relevant attributes changes in the physical environment. Opportunity to critically examine the conceptualization and identification of the field in geographical research and how digital media has not only expanded the scope of what constitutes the field but has redefined the field in itself as well as the practices of observing, knowing, and analyzing the real world.
Methodological Aspects of the Development of Low Temperature Physics 1881–1956: Concepts Out of Context(s) (Science and Philosophy #4)
by K. Gavroglu Yorgos GoudaroulisThis book is primarily about the methodological questions involved in attempts to understand two of the most peculiar phenomena in physics, both occurring at the lowest of temperatures. Superconductivity (the disappearance of electrical resistance) and superfluidity (the total absence of viscosity in liquid helium) are not merely peculiar in their own right. Being the only macroscopic quantum phenomena they also manifest a sudden and dramatic change even in those properties which have been amply used within the classical framework and which were thought to be fully understood after the advent of quantum theory. A few years ago we set ourselves the task of carrying out a methodological study of the "most peculiar" phenomena in physics and trying to understand the process by which an observed (rather than predicted) new phenomenon gets "translated" into a physical problem. We thought the best way of deciding which phenomena to choose was to rely on our intuitive notion about the "degrees of peculiarity" developed, no doubt, during the past ten years of active research in theoretical atomic and elementary particle physics. While the merits of the different candidates were compared, we were amazed to realize that neither the phenomena of the very small nor those of the very large could compete with the phenomena of the very cold. These were truly remarkable phenomena if for no other reason than for the difficulties encountered in merely describing them.
Methodological Investigations in Agent-Based Modelling: With Applications for the Social Sciences (Methodos Series #13)
by Eric Silverman Daniel Courgeau Robert Franck Jakub Bijak Jason Hilton Jason Noble John BrydenThis open access book examines the methodological complications of using complexity science concepts within the social science domain. The opening chapters take the reader on a tour through the development of simulation methodologies in the fields of artificial life and population biology, then demonstrates the growing popularity and relevance of these methods in the social sciences. Following an in-depth analysis of the potential impact of these methods on social science and social theory, the text provides substantive examples of the application of agent-based models in the field of demography. This work offers a unique combination of applied simulation work and substantive, in-depth philosophical analysis, and as such has potential appeal for specialist social scientists, complex systems scientists, and philosophers of science interested in the methodology of simulation and the practice of interdisciplinary computing research.
Methodological Prospects for Scientific Research: From Pragmatism to Pluralism (Synthese Library #430)
by Wenceslao J. GonzalezThis book highlights the existence of a diversity of methods in science, in general, in groups of sciences (natural, social or the artificial), and in individual sciences. This methodological variety is open to a number of consequences, such as the differences in the research according to levels of reality (micro, meso and macro), which leads to multi-scale modelling and to questioning “fundamental” parts in the sciences, understood as the necessary support for the whole discipline. In addition, this volume acknowledges the need to assess the efficacy of procedures and methods of scientific activity in engendering high quality results in research made; the relevance of contextual factors for methodology of science; the existence of a plurality of stratagems when doing research in empirical sciences (natural, social and of the artificial); and the need for an ethical component while developing scientific methods, because values should have a role in scientific research. The book is of interest to a broad audience of philosophers, academics in various fields, graduate students and research centers interested in methodology of science.
Methodological Reflections on Women’s Contribution and Influence in the History of Philosophy (Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences #3)
by Sigridur Thorgeirsdottir Ruth Edith HagengruberThis book introduces methodological concepts aimed at including women in the canon of the history of philosophy. The history of women philosophers is as long and strong as the history of philosophy, and this holds true not only for the European tradition, as the research of women philosophers of the past shows. The phenomenon of ignoring and excluding women in 19th and 20th century views on the history of philosophy was a result of the patriarchal tradition that ostracized women in general. In this book, leading feminist philosophers discuss methodologies for including women thinkers in the canon and curricula of philosophy. How does the recovery of women thinkers and their philosophies change our view of the past, and how does a different view of the past affect us in the present? Studying a richer and more pluralistic history of philosophy presents us with worlds we have never entered and have never been able to approach. This book will appeal to philosophers and intellectual historians wanting to view the history of philosophy in a new light and who are in favor of an inclusive perspective on that history.
Methodological Variance: Essays in Epistemological Ontology and the Methodology of Science (Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science #131)
by G.L. PanditFor a philosopher with an abiding interest in the nature of objective knowledge systems in science, what could be more important than trying to think in terms of those very subjects of such knowledge to which men like Galileo, Newton, Max Planck, Einstein and others devoted their entire lifetimes? In certain respects, these systems and their structures may not be beyond the grasp of a linguistic conception of science, and scientific change, which men of science and philosophy have advocated in various forms in recent times. But certainly it is wrong-headed to think that one's conception of science can be based on an identification of its theories with languages in which they may be, my own alternatively, framed. There may be more than one place in book (1983: 87) where they may seem to get confused with each other, quite against my original intentiens. The distinction between the objec tive knowledge systems in science and the dynamic frameworks of the languages of the special individual sciences, in which their growth can be embedded in significant ways, assumes here, therefore, much impor tance. It must be recognized that the problems concerning scientific change, which these systems undergo, are not just problems concerning language change.
Methodologies and Applications for Analytical and Physical Chemistry (Innovations in Physical Chemistry)
by A. K. Haghi, Sabu Thomas, Sukanchan Palit, and Priyanka MainThis volume presents an up-to-date review of modern materials and concepts, issues, and recent advances in analytical and physical chemistry. Distinguished scientists and engineers from key institutions worldwide have contributed chapters that provide a deep analysis of their particular subjects. The chapters discuss the composition and properties of complex materials as well as mixtures, processes, and the need for new and improved analytical technology.
Methodologies and Applications for Analytical and Physical Chemistry (Innovations in Physical Chemistry)
by A. K. Haghi Sabu Thomas Sukanchan Palit Priyanka MainThis volume presents an up-to-date review of modern materials and concepts, issues, and recent advances in analytical and physical chemistry. Distinguished scientists and engineers from key institutions worldwide have contributed chapters that provide a deep analysis of their particular subjects. The chapters discuss the composition and properties of complex materials as well as mixtures, processes, and the need for new and improved analytical technology.
Methodologies and Results in Grapevine Research
by Serge Delrot Hipólito Medrano Etti Or Luigi Bavaresco Stella GrandoGrapevine is a crop of major economical interest, and wine represents a multicultural heritage which has been growing since several milleniums. Yet, modern viticulture must face several challenges. Global climate has increased berry sugar content (and alcohol in the wine) whereas phenolic and aromatic ripeness are not always achieved. Water supply is becoming shorter. New varieties better adapted to new climatic conditions might have to be planted, which may affect wine typicity. Phytochemical treatments are more controlled, and the consumer pays increasing attention to environmentally safe practices. New methods reducing pesticide use, but maintaining yield and typicity, must be designed. The present book illustrates the recent progress made in ecophysiology, molecular and cell biology, and pathology of grapevine, as well as in precision viticulture and berry composition. Combination of these new tools with field observations will undoubtly make it easier to face the challenges described above. These multidisciplinary contributions will be of interest to anyone involved in grapevine and wine activities.
Methodologies for Control of Jump Time-Delay Systems
by Magdi S. Mahmoud Peng ShiThis book is about time-domain modelling, stability, stabilization, control design and filtering for JTDS. It gives readers a thorough understanding of the basic mathematical analysis and fundamentals, offers a straightforward treatment of the different topics and provides broad coverage of the recent methodologies.
Methodologies in Amine Synthesis: Challenges and Applications
by Alfredo Ricci Luca BernardiProvides a unique overview of efficient synthetic routes to one of the most important compound classes in organic and pharmaceutical chemistry! Amines are among the most important compounds in organic chemistry due to their wide occurrence in natural products, drugs, crop protection compounds, and advanced materials. For example, the majority of drugs are amines or contain functional groups derived from amines. Powerful and efficient methods for the introduction of the amino group are therefore of great importance to synthetic chemists in academia and industry. Methodologies in Amine Synthesis: Challenges and Applications presents powerful and state-of-the-art methods for the efficient preparation of amines. It summarizes recent advances in the electrophilic amination reaction, hydroamination, C?H amination as well as newly developed photocatalytic approaches. It further describes organocatalytic and enzymatic routes to the generation of amines under mild and environmentally friendly conditions. In addition, it highlights the relevance of the amino function in bioactive molecules, drugs, and in the engineering of smart materials. Finally, the application of palladium-catalyzed aromatic amination in industrial context is critically discussed. Only up-to-date and comprehensive book on the preparation of amines ? one of the most frequently occurring compound classes found in natural products, bioactive molecules, and advanced materials. Presents efficient and useful synthetic methods, highlights opportunities / challenges as well as applications in pharmaceutical chemistry and materials science. Chapters are compiled by well-known experts in the field. One of them edited the previous books Modern Amination Methods (2001) and Amino Group Chemistry (2007). The book Methodologies in Amine Synthesis: Challenges and Applications is a musthave for chemists in academia and industry working in the field of organic synthesis and catalysis, natural product chemistry, drug synthesis and pharmaceutical chemistry, as well as materials science.
Methodologies in Amine Synthesis: Challenges and Applications
by Alfredo Ricci Luca BernardiProvides a unique overview of efficient synthetic routes to one of the most important compound classes in organic and pharmaceutical chemistry! Amines are among the most important compounds in organic chemistry due to their wide occurrence in natural products, drugs, crop protection compounds, and advanced materials. For example, the majority of drugs are amines or contain functional groups derived from amines. Powerful and efficient methods for the introduction of the amino group are therefore of great importance to synthetic chemists in academia and industry. Methodologies in Amine Synthesis: Challenges and Applications presents powerful and state-of-the-art methods for the efficient preparation of amines. It summarizes recent advances in the electrophilic amination reaction, hydroamination, C?H amination as well as newly developed photocatalytic approaches. It further describes organocatalytic and enzymatic routes to the generation of amines under mild and environmentally friendly conditions. In addition, it highlights the relevance of the amino function in bioactive molecules, drugs, and in the engineering of smart materials. Finally, the application of palladium-catalyzed aromatic amination in industrial context is critically discussed. Only up-to-date and comprehensive book on the preparation of amines ? one of the most frequently occurring compound classes found in natural products, bioactive molecules, and advanced materials. Presents efficient and useful synthetic methods, highlights opportunities / challenges as well as applications in pharmaceutical chemistry and materials science. Chapters are compiled by well-known experts in the field. One of them edited the previous books Modern Amination Methods (2001) and Amino Group Chemistry (2007). The book Methodologies in Amine Synthesis: Challenges and Applications is a musthave for chemists in academia and industry working in the field of organic synthesis and catalysis, natural product chemistry, drug synthesis and pharmaceutical chemistry, as well as materials science.
Methodologies of Multi-Omics Data Integration and Data Mining: Techniques and Applications (Translational Bioinformatics #19)
by Kang NingThis book features multi-omics big-data integration and data-mining techniques. In the omics age, paramount of multi-omics data from various sources is the new challenge we are facing, but it also provides clues for several biomedical or clinical applications. This book focuses on data integration and data mining methods for multi-omics research, which explains in detail and with supportive examples the “What”, “Why” and “How” of the topic. The contents are organized into eight chapters, out of which one is for the introduction, followed by four chapters dedicated for omics integration techniques focusing on several omics data resources and data-mining methods, and three chapters dedicated for applications of multi-omics analyses with application being demonstrated by several data mining methods. This book is an attempt to bridge the gap between the biomedical multi-omics big data and the data-mining techniques for the best practice of contemporary bioinformatics and the in-depth insights for the biomedical questions. It would be of interests for the researchers and practitioners who want to conduct the multi-omics studies in cancer, inflammation disease, and microbiome researches.
Methodology, Epistemology, and Philosophy of Science: Essays in Honour of Wolfgang Stegmüller on the Occasion of his 60th B irth day, June 3rd, 1983. Reprinted from the Journal Erkenntnis, Vol. 19, Nos 1,2 and 3
by Carl G. Hempel H. Putnam Wilhelm K. Essler
Methodology in Neuropsychological Assessment: An Interpretative Approach to Guide Clinical Practice
by Sara Mondini Marinella Cappelletti Giorgio ArcaraMethodology in Neuropsychological Assessment: An Interpretative Approach to Guide Clinical Practice provides practical and methodological guidance for neuropsychologists working with people with brain lesions or brain dysfunctions. The textbook underlines the principles that can be used to guide clinicians in recognizing and interpreting signs and symptoms while enabling a complete neuropsychological assessment through a series of well-defined steps. The text provides a detailed methodological approach towards neuropsychological tools, with guidance on how to select the right test and how to interpret the outcome, which can act as a primer for a clinician through every step of the assessment in a coherent and reasoned way. The textbook presents an exhaustive discussion of the varied tools that a clinician can employ to complete a rigorous and consistent neuropsychological assessment. It guides the reader from the first step of collecting the personal history of the examinee – the anamnesis – to the selection of suitable psychometric tests and scoring, which is accordingly integrated to formulate the neuropsychological diagnosis and write up the neuropsychological report. Chapters also include coverage of the neuropsychological interview with the examinee and their family and the probability of identifying a disorder with a neuropsychological assessment. The authors have further included a series of detailed and explanatory clinical cases from their experience to expand upon the evaluation process. The textbook is valuable reading for students in clinical neuropsychology who are learning to carry out neuropsychological evaluations as well as clinicians who are seeking to develop a more comprehensive approach towards performing a thorough neuropsychological assessment.
Methodology in Neuropsychological Assessment: An Interpretative Approach to Guide Clinical Practice
by Sara Mondini Marinella Cappelletti Giorgio ArcaraMethodology in Neuropsychological Assessment: An Interpretative Approach to Guide Clinical Practice provides practical and methodological guidance for neuropsychologists working with people with brain lesions or brain dysfunctions. The textbook underlines the principles that can be used to guide clinicians in recognizing and interpreting signs and symptoms while enabling a complete neuropsychological assessment through a series of well-defined steps. The text provides a detailed methodological approach towards neuropsychological tools, with guidance on how to select the right test and how to interpret the outcome, which can act as a primer for a clinician through every step of the assessment in a coherent and reasoned way. The textbook presents an exhaustive discussion of the varied tools that a clinician can employ to complete a rigorous and consistent neuropsychological assessment. It guides the reader from the first step of collecting the personal history of the examinee – the anamnesis – to the selection of suitable psychometric tests and scoring, which is accordingly integrated to formulate the neuropsychological diagnosis and write up the neuropsychological report. Chapters also include coverage of the neuropsychological interview with the examinee and their family and the probability of identifying a disorder with a neuropsychological assessment. The authors have further included a series of detailed and explanatory clinical cases from their experience to expand upon the evaluation process. The textbook is valuable reading for students in clinical neuropsychology who are learning to carry out neuropsychological evaluations as well as clinicians who are seeking to develop a more comprehensive approach towards performing a thorough neuropsychological assessment.
Methodology, Metaphysics and the History of Science: In Memory of Benjamin Nelson (Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science #84)
by Robert S. Cohen and Marx W. WartofskyThis selection of papers that were presented (or nearly so!) to the Boston Colloquium for the Philosophy of Science during the seventies fairly re presents some of the most disturbing issues of scientific knowledge in these years. To the distant observer, it may seem that the defense of rational standards, objective reference, methodical self-correction, even the distin guishing of the foolish from the sensible and the truth-seeking from the ideological, has nearly collapsed. In fact, the defense may be seen to have shifted; the knowledge business came under scrutiny decades ago and, indeed, from the time of Francis Bacon and even far earlier, the practicality of the discovery of knowledge was either hailed or lamented. So the defense may be founded on the premise that science may yet be liberating. In that case, the analysis of philosophical issues expands to embrace issues of social interest and social function, of instrumentality and arbitrary perspective, of biological constraints (upon knowledge as well as upon the species-wide behavior of human beings in other relationships too), of distortions due to explanatory metaphors and imposed categories, and of radical comparisons among the perspectives of different civilizations. Some of our contributors are frankly programmatic, showing how problems must be formulated afresh, how evasions must be identified and omissions rectified, but they do not reach their own completion.
Methodology, Models and Algorithms in Thermographic Diagnostics (Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics #5)
by Jozef Živčák Radovan Hudák Ladislav Madarász Imre J. RudasThis book presents the methodology and techniques of thermographic applications with focus primarily on medical thermography implemented for parametrizing the diagnostics of the human body. The first part of the book describes the basics of infrared thermography, the possibilities of thermographic diagnostics and the physical nature of thermography. The second half includes tools of intelligent engineering applied for the solving of selected applications and projects. Thermographic diagnostics was applied to problematics of paraplegia and tetraplegia and carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). The results of the research activities were created with the cooperation of the four projects within the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic entitled Digital control of complex systems with two degrees of freedom, Progressive methods of education in the area of control and modeling of complex object oriented systems on aircraft turbocompressor engines, Center for research of control of technical, environmental and human risks for permanent development of production and products in mechanical engineering and Research of new diagnostic methods in invasive implantology.
Methodology Of Frontal And Executive Function
by Patrick RabbittThis volume reflects the pressure to develop useful models and methodologies to study executive behaviour - the ability to update information in working memory in order to control selective attention to formulate plans of action and to monitor their efficient execution. Many models are based on the concept of a single "central executive" that manges these functions; others propose a number of independent "working memory systems" that each serve one task or activity but not others.; This book is a collection of essays by active researchers who discuss their own work on the definition of "executive" or "controlled" behaviours, and on the relation of these behaviours to specific areas of the frontal cortex. The papers are particularly concerned with logical difficulties that arise in defining these functions that lead, in turn, to methodological difficulties in studying them. In particular, they discuss such problems as the low test-re-test reliability of tasks that have been used to define and explore "executive" behaviours, the limited validity of these tasks in predicting performance deficits, the poor localization of the changes observed with respect to underlying brain function, and the relation of performance on these tasks to individual difference in performance on measures of "global" or "general" intellectual ability such as Spearman's 1927 gf.; The authors discuss their own research on the relations between cognitive function and neuropsychology, on changes in executive competence in conditions such as closed head injuries or dementias that may diffusely affect the whole brain, and on changes in executive function in normal old age.
Methodology Of Frontal And Executive Function
by Patrick RabbittThis volume reflects the pressure to develop useful models and methodologies to study executive behaviour - the ability to update information in working memory in order to control selective attention to formulate plans of action and to monitor their efficient execution. Many models are based on the concept of a single "central executive" that manges these functions; others propose a number of independent "working memory systems" that each serve one task or activity but not others.; This book is a collection of essays by active researchers who discuss their own work on the definition of "executive" or "controlled" behaviours, and on the relation of these behaviours to specific areas of the frontal cortex. The papers are particularly concerned with logical difficulties that arise in defining these functions that lead, in turn, to methodological difficulties in studying them. In particular, they discuss such problems as the low test-re-test reliability of tasks that have been used to define and explore "executive" behaviours, the limited validity of these tasks in predicting performance deficits, the poor localization of the changes observed with respect to underlying brain function, and the relation of performance on these tasks to individual difference in performance on measures of "global" or "general" intellectual ability such as Spearman's 1927 gf.; The authors discuss their own research on the relations between cognitive function and neuropsychology, on changes in executive competence in conditions such as closed head injuries or dementias that may diffusely affect the whole brain, and on changes in executive function in normal old age.
Methodology of History (Synthese Library #88)
by Y. TopolskiNo discipline has been more praised or more criticized than the writing of history. Cioero claimed that history teaches men how to live. Aris totle denied it the very name of science and regwded poetry as the higher wisdom. At various times history has been assigned a command ing or a demeaning statIUs in the hierarchy of sciences. Today one can admire the increasing precision and sophistication of the methods used by historia:ns. On the other hand, Thucydides' History of the PeZo ponesian War still serves as the ideal model of how to reconstruct the historical past. Even those who deny the possibility of an objective reconstruction of the past would themselves likie to be recorded by historians, "objectively" or not. Dislike of history and fear of its verdict are not incompatible with reverence and awe for its practitioners, the historians. So man's attitude to history is ambiguous. The controversy about history continues. Widely differing issues are at stake. Historians themselves, however, are the least engaged in the struggle. Rarely does a historian decide to open the door of his study and join in the melee about the meaning of history. More often he slams it shut and returns to his studies, oblivious of the fact that with the passage of thne the gap between his scientific work and its audience might widen. The historian does not shun the battle, he merely chooses his own battleground.