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Working Memory and Clinical Developmental Disorders: Theories, Debates and Interventions
by Tracy Packiam AllowayThis comprehensive volume brings together international experts involved in applying and developing understanding of Working Memory in the context of a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders, neurocognitive disorders, and depressive disorders. Each chapter provides a description of the disorder and investigates the Working Memory and related Executive Function deficits. It goes on to provide a neurological profile, before exploring the impact of the disorder in daily functions, the current debates related to this disorder, and the potential effects of medication and intervention. Through combining coverage of theoretical understanding, methods of assessment, and different evidence-based intervention programs, the book supports clinical assessment and management of poor Working Memory. It is essential reading for students in neurodevelopmental disorders, atypical development and developmental psychopathology as well as allied health professionals, clinicians and those working with children in education and healthcare settings.
Working Memory and Education (ISSN)
by Gary D. Phye Susan J. PickeringPsychologists have been trying to understand the factors that underpin children's success and failure in different educational domains for many years. One psychological function that has been found to play an important role in educational achievement is 'working memory', the processes involved in the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information. This book provides the reader with an up-to-date review of the research that has identified how working memory relates to academic attainment in: reading, reading comprehension, arithmetic and writing, as well as looking at how children with difficulties relating to hearing impairment and attention deficits differ in terms of their working memory. Other chapters focus on how working memory is called upon in classroom settings, how working memory can be assessed, and approaches to remediation. The opening chapter of the book provides an account of working memory from the architect of the model that has dominated psychological theory for over two decades. This book is a valuable resource for psychologists, educationalists, and anyone seeking to understand more about the cognitive basis of educational achievement in children.* It brings together in one volume information that would normally be found in different sources * It brings together two disciplines that are highly relevant to one another (psychology and education) but not often linked directly * Provides psychologists with a perspective on educational practice * Provides educationalists with a well-established psychological framework for viewing educational phenomena * It provides information about up-to-date research techniques * It provides suggestions on how psychological theory can be translated into practice in educational settings
Working Memory and Human Cognition (Counterpoints: Cognition, Memory, and Language)
by John T. Richardson Randall W. Engle Lynn Hasher Robert H. Logie Ellen R. Stoltzfus Rose T. ZacksThis new volume in the Counterpoints series compares and contrasts different conceptions of working memory, generally recognized as the human cognitive system responsible for temporary storage of information. The book includes proponents of several different views. Robert Logie discusses the theoretical and empirical utility of separating working memory into an articulatory loop, a phonological store, and a visuo-spatial sketchpad into visual and spatial subsystems. Patricia Carpenter provides evidence for a process view of working memory, arguing that both task-specific processing and general processing capabilities can account for the full range of working memory phenomena. She focuses on findings from reading comprehension and memory tasks suggesting that working memory is used to represent the set of skills and strategies necessary for complex tasks, while retaining residual capacity for use as a storage buffer. Lynn Hasher argues in favor of the new inhibitory model, with evidence drawn from the literature on aging and pathology that demonstrates parallels between memory disorders and normal memory functioning. Randall Engle addresses the issue of whether working memory resources are required for retrieval of information or whether that task is relatively automatic. Engle's empirical studies, in turn, bear directly on the positions of Carpenter, Hasher, and Logie. As interest in working memory is increasing at a rapid pace, an open discussion of the central issues involved is both useful and timely. This work serves this purpose for a wide audience of cognitive psychologists and their students.
Working Memory and Language (Essays in Cognitive Psychology)
by Susan E. Gathercole Alan D. BaddeleyThis book evaluates the involvement of working memory in five central aspects of language processing: vocabulary acquisition, speech production, reading development, skilled reading, and comprehension. The authors draw upon experimental, neuropsychological and developmental evidence in a wide-ranging evaluation of the contribution of two components of working memory to each aspect of language. The two components are the phonological loop, which is specialised for the processing and maintenance of verbal material, and the general-purpose processing system of the central executive.A full introduction to the application of the working memory model to normal adults, neuropsychological patients and children is provided in the two opening chapters. Non-experts within this area will find these chapters particularly useful in providing a clear statement of the current theoretical and empirical status of the working memory model. Each of the following chapters examines the involvement of working memory in one specialised aspect of language processing, in each case integrating the available experimental, neuropsychological and developmental evidence. The book will therefore be of direct relevance to researchers interested in both language processing and memory.Working Memory and Language is unique in that it draws together findings from normal adults, brain-damaged patients, and children. For each of these populations, working memory involvement in language processing ranging from the speech production to comprehension are evaluated. Working Memory and Language provides a comprehensive analysis of just what roles working memory does play in the processing of language.
Working Memory and Language (Essays in Cognitive Psychology)
by Susan E. Gathercole Alan D. BaddeleyThis book evaluates the involvement of working memory in five central aspects of language processing: vocabulary acquisition, speech production, reading development, skilled reading, and comprehension. The authors draw upon experimental, neuropsychological and developmental evidence in a wide-ranging evaluation of the contribution of two components of working memory to each aspect of language. The two components are the phonological loop, which is specialised for the processing and maintenance of verbal material, and the general-purpose processing system of the central executive.A full introduction to the application of the working memory model to normal adults, neuropsychological patients and children is provided in the two opening chapters. Non-experts within this area will find these chapters particularly useful in providing a clear statement of the current theoretical and empirical status of the working memory model. Each of the following chapters examines the involvement of working memory in one specialised aspect of language processing, in each case integrating the available experimental, neuropsychological and developmental evidence. The book will therefore be of direct relevance to researchers interested in both language processing and memory.Working Memory and Language is unique in that it draws together findings from normal adults, brain-damaged patients, and children. For each of these populations, working memory involvement in language processing ranging from the speech production to comprehension are evaluated. Working Memory and Language provides a comprehensive analysis of just what roles working memory does play in the processing of language.
Working Memory and Language in the Modular Mind
by John TruscottThe book explores two fundamental aspects of the human mind and their relation to one another. The first is the way that information is put to use in the mind. When we are doing a mental arithmetic problem, for example, how do we bring the relevant bits of information to mind and hold them there while carrying out the series of calculations? This is working memory, the subject of an enormous research literature in psychology, neuroscience, and a great many other disciplines. Characterizing the working memory process is now a major part of efforts to understand the human mind. How we characterize this process depends of course on how we characterize the human mind as a whole. In particular, is the mind made up of a number of distinct units, each carrying out a specialized function? There is considerable reason to say that it is, and this modular view of the mind has become prominent in a great deal of academic work, notably in cognitive neuroscience, with important implications for our understanding of how working memory works. But these implications have received surprisingly little consideration to this point. The aim of the book is to explore this relation between working memory and modularity, first in general terms and then using a specific modular view of the mind – the Modular Cognition Framework. The ideas are illustrated and further developed through an application to language and especially second language acquisition and use.
Working Memory and Language in the Modular Mind
by John TruscottThe book explores two fundamental aspects of the human mind and their relation to one another. The first is the way that information is put to use in the mind. When we are doing a mental arithmetic problem, for example, how do we bring the relevant bits of information to mind and hold them there while carrying out the series of calculations? This is working memory, the subject of an enormous research literature in psychology, neuroscience, and a great many other disciplines. Characterizing the working memory process is now a major part of efforts to understand the human mind. How we characterize this process depends of course on how we characterize the human mind as a whole. In particular, is the mind made up of a number of distinct units, each carrying out a specialized function? There is considerable reason to say that it is, and this modular view of the mind has become prominent in a great deal of academic work, notably in cognitive neuroscience, with important implications for our understanding of how working memory works. But these implications have received surprisingly little consideration to this point. The aim of the book is to explore this relation between working memory and modularity, first in general terms and then using a specific modular view of the mind – the Modular Cognition Framework. The ideas are illustrated and further developed through an application to language and especially second language acquisition and use.
Working Memory and Severe Learning Difficulties (Psychology Library Editions: Memory)
by Charles Hulme Susie Mackenzie"Working memory" is a term used to refer to the systems responsible for the temporary storage of information during the performance of cognitive tasks. The efficiency of working memory skills in children may place limitations on the learning and performance of educationally important skills such as reading, language comprehension and arithmetic. Originally published in 1992, this monograph considers the development of working memory skills in children with severe learning difficulties. These children have marked difficulties with a wide range of cognitive tasks. The studies reported show that they also experience profound difficulties in verbal working memory tasks. These memory problems are associated with a failure to rehearse information within an articulatory loop. Training the children to rehearse material is shown to help alleviate these problems. The implications of these studies for understanding normal memory development, and for models of the structure of working memory and its development are discussed. It is argued that the working memory deficits seen in people with severe learning difficulties may contribute to their difficulties on other cognitive tasks.
Working Memory and Severe Learning Difficulties (Psychology Library Editions: Memory)
by Charles Hulme Susie Mackenzie"Working memory" is a term used to refer to the systems responsible for the temporary storage of information during the performance of cognitive tasks. The efficiency of working memory skills in children may place limitations on the learning and performance of educationally important skills such as reading, language comprehension and arithmetic. Originally published in 1992, this monograph considers the development of working memory skills in children with severe learning difficulties. These children have marked difficulties with a wide range of cognitive tasks. The studies reported show that they also experience profound difficulties in verbal working memory tasks. These memory problems are associated with a failure to rehearse information within an articulatory loop. Training the children to rehearse material is shown to help alleviate these problems. The implications of these studies for understanding normal memory development, and for models of the structure of working memory and its development are discussed. It is argued that the working memory deficits seen in people with severe learning difficulties may contribute to their difficulties on other cognitive tasks.
Working Memory Capacity: Classic Edition (Psychology Press & Routledge Classic Editions)
by Nelson CowanThe idea of one's memory "filling up" is a humorous misconception of how memory in general is thought to work; it actually has no capacity limit. However, the idea of a "full brain" makes more sense with reference to working memory, which is the limited amount of information a person can hold temporarily in an especially accessible form for use in the completion of almost any challenging cognitive task. This groundbreaking book explains the evidence supporting Cowan's theoretical proposal about working memory capacity, and compares it to competing perspectives. Cognitive psychologists profoundly disagree on how working memory is limited: whether by the number of units that can be retained (and, if so, what kind of units and how many), the types of interfering material, the time that has elapsed, some combination of these mechanisms, or none of them. The book assesses these hypotheses and examines explanations of why capacity limits occur, including vivid biological, cognitive, and evolutionary accounts. The book concludes with a discussion of the practical importance of capacity limits in daily life. This 10th anniversary Classic Edition will continue to be accessible to a wide range of readers and serve as an invaluable reference for all memory researchers.
Working Memory Capacity: Classic Edition (Psychology Press & Routledge Classic Editions)
by Nelson CowanThe idea of one's memory "filling up" is a humorous misconception of how memory in general is thought to work; it actually has no capacity limit. However, the idea of a "full brain" makes more sense with reference to working memory, which is the limited amount of information a person can hold temporarily in an especially accessible form for use in the completion of almost any challenging cognitive task. This groundbreaking book explains the evidence supporting Cowan's theoretical proposal about working memory capacity, and compares it to competing perspectives. Cognitive psychologists profoundly disagree on how working memory is limited: whether by the number of units that can be retained (and, if so, what kind of units and how many), the types of interfering material, the time that has elapsed, some combination of these mechanisms, or none of them. The book assesses these hypotheses and examines explanations of why capacity limits occur, including vivid biological, cognitive, and evolutionary accounts. The book concludes with a discussion of the practical importance of capacity limits in daily life. This 10th anniversary Classic Edition will continue to be accessible to a wide range of readers and serve as an invaluable reference for all memory researchers.
Working Memory in Development (Essays in Cognitive Psychology)
by Valérie Camos Pierre BarrouilletWorking memory is the system responsible for the temporary maintenance and processing of information involved in most cognitive activities, and its study is essential to the understanding of cognitive development. Working Memory in Development provides an integrative and thorough account of how working memory develops and how this development underpins childhood cognitive development. Tracing back theories of cognitive development from Piaget's most influential theory to neo-Piagetian approaches and theories pertaining to the information-processing tradition, Camos and Barrouillet show in Part I how the conception of a working memory became critical to understanding cognitive development. Part II provides an overview of the main approaches to working memory and reviews how working memory itself develops across infancy and childhood. In the final Part III, the authors explain their own theory, the Time-Based Resource-Sharing (TBRS) model, and discuss how this accounts for the development of working memory as well providing an adequate frame to understanding the role of working memory in cognitive development. Working Memory in Development effectively addresses central and debated questions related to working memory and is essential reading for students and researchers in developmental, cognitive, and educational psychology.
Working Memory in Development (Essays in Cognitive Psychology)
by Valérie Camos Pierre BarrouilletWorking memory is the system responsible for the temporary maintenance and processing of information involved in most cognitive activities, and its study is essential to the understanding of cognitive development. Working Memory in Development provides an integrative and thorough account of how working memory develops and how this development underpins childhood cognitive development. Tracing back theories of cognitive development from Piaget's most influential theory to neo-Piagetian approaches and theories pertaining to the information-processing tradition, Camos and Barrouillet show in Part I how the conception of a working memory became critical to understanding cognitive development. Part II provides an overview of the main approaches to working memory and reviews how working memory itself develops across infancy and childhood. In the final Part III, the authors explain their own theory, the Time-Based Resource-Sharing (TBRS) model, and discuss how this accounts for the development of working memory as well providing an adequate frame to understanding the role of working memory in cognitive development. Working Memory in Development effectively addresses central and debated questions related to working memory and is essential reading for students and researchers in developmental, cognitive, and educational psychology.
Working Memory in Perspective
by Jackie AndradeThe Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Working Memory model holds a central place in experimental psychology and continues to be extremely successful in guiding and stimulating research in applied and theoretical domains. Yet the model now faces challenges from conflicting data and competing theories. In this book, experienced researchers in the field address the question: Will the model survive these challenges? They explain why it is so successful, evaluate its weaknesses with respect to opposing data and theories and present their vision of the future of the model in their particular area of research. The book includes a discussion of the "Episodic Buffer" component which has recently been added to the working memory model.The result is a comprehensive and critical assessment of the working memory model and its contribution to current research in human cognition, cognitive development, neuroscience and computational modelling. Furthermore, this collection serves as a case study to illustrate the range of factors that determine the success or failure of a theory and as a forum for discussing what researchers want from scientific theories. The book begins with an accessible introduction to the model for those new to the field and explains the empirical methods used in working memory research. It concludes by highlighting areas of consensus and suggesting a programme of research to address issues of continuing controversy. Working Memory in Perspective will be a valuable resource to students and researchers alike in the fields of human memory, language, thought and cognitive development.
Working Memory in Perspective
by Jackie AndradeThe Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Working Memory model holds a central place in experimental psychology and continues to be extremely successful in guiding and stimulating research in applied and theoretical domains. Yet the model now faces challenges from conflicting data and competing theories. In this book, experienced researchers in the field address the question: Will the model survive these challenges? They explain why it is so successful, evaluate its weaknesses with respect to opposing data and theories and present their vision of the future of the model in their particular area of research. The book includes a discussion of the "Episodic Buffer" component which has recently been added to the working memory model.The result is a comprehensive and critical assessment of the working memory model and its contribution to current research in human cognition, cognitive development, neuroscience and computational modelling. Furthermore, this collection serves as a case study to illustrate the range of factors that determine the success or failure of a theory and as a forum for discussing what researchers want from scientific theories. The book begins with an accessible introduction to the model for those new to the field and explains the empirical methods used in working memory research. It concludes by highlighting areas of consensus and suggesting a programme of research to address issues of continuing controversy. Working Memory in Perspective will be a valuable resource to students and researchers alike in the fields of human memory, language, thought and cognitive development.
Working Models of Human Perception
by Ben A. G. ElsendoornThis book devotes attention to both theoretical and applied problems simultaneously. Many applied problems turn out to be very difficult and they often need deep theoretical insight in order to get solved. In fact, applied problems often serve as a source of inspiration for theoretical work, since they usually are beyond reach of present theories and may show us in what direction theories need to be developed.The layout of the book is a reflection of the three main areas of research at the Institute for Perception Research: Hearing and Speech, Vision and Reading, Cognition and Communication. Following the set-up of the workshop, the organization of the papers is in pairs, such that the odd-numbered chapters are generally reactions to the even-numbered chapters.
Working More Creatively with Groups
by Jarlath BensonA new edition of the classic group work textbook! In Working More Creatively with Groups, Jarlath Benson presents the essential knowledge required to set up and work with a group. He looks at how to plan and lead a group successfully and how to intervene skilfully. As well as covering the different stages in the life of a group, the book emphasizes the various levels of group experience and gives suggestions for working imaginatively with them. This thoroughly updated third edition not only provides a comprehensive guide to groupwork but shows the groupworker how to move on to more in-depth and intensive work, using a variety of strategies illustrated by full clinical vignettes. Many chapters are updated and expanded to include Benson’s latest thinking and teaching and the book includes two new chapters. The first focuses on working with and developing different sorts of groups along the therapeutic/educational continuum. The second new chapter discusses how to best use a supervisory process and set up and run a supervisory group. Well known and widely used by social workers, psychologists, educationalists and youth workers, this popular text is suitable for all those working with groups.
Working More Creatively with Groups
by Jarlath BensonA new edition of the classic group work textbook! In Working More Creatively with Groups, Jarlath Benson presents the essential knowledge required to set up and work with a group. He looks at how to plan and lead a group successfully and how to intervene skilfully. As well as covering the different stages in the life of a group, the book emphasizes the various levels of group experience and gives suggestions for working imaginatively with them. This thoroughly updated third edition not only provides a comprehensive guide to groupwork but shows the groupworker how to move on to more in-depth and intensive work, using a variety of strategies illustrated by full clinical vignettes. Many chapters are updated and expanded to include Benson’s latest thinking and teaching and the book includes two new chapters. The first focuses on working with and developing different sorts of groups along the therapeutic/educational continuum. The second new chapter discusses how to best use a supervisory process and set up and run a supervisory group. Well known and widely used by social workers, psychologists, educationalists and youth workers, this popular text is suitable for all those working with groups.
Working More Creatively with Groups
by Jarlath BensonIn this classic text Jarlath Benson presents the basic and essential knowledge required to set up and work with a group. He looks at how to plan and lead a group successfully and how to intervene skilfully. As well as covering the different stages in the life of a group, the book emphasizes the various levels of group experience and gives suggestions for working more creatively with them. For this new edition the author has added two new chapters reflecting how his own thinking and practice have developed since the book was first published. In the first he presents his new model for planning, setting up and working with reflective practice groups which are increasingly used in professional settings and agencies across the public sector and health care. In the second he considers why some groups fail and offers practical and helpful ideas and insights to guide agencies and groupworkers to think and plan more systemically, and provides a series of clinical vignettes that facilitates each of these contexts and perspectives. There is also an expanded section on how to plan and conduct the sophisticated art of co-working and again a series of clinical vignettes that illustrate best practice. Working More Creatively with Groups is well known to countless social workers, psychologists, teachers and community workers and many other professionals who utilize and employ groupwork in their practice. This new edition not only provides the basic guide to groupwork but also shows how to move on to more in-depth and intensive work.
Working More Creatively with Groups
by Jarlath BensonIn this classic text Jarlath Benson presents the basic and essential knowledge required to set up and work with a group. He looks at how to plan and lead a group successfully and how to intervene skilfully. As well as covering the different stages in the life of a group, the book emphasizes the various levels of group experience and gives suggestions for working more creatively with them. For this new edition the author has added two new chapters reflecting how his own thinking and practice have developed since the book was first published. In the first he presents his new model for planning, setting up and working with reflective practice groups which are increasingly used in professional settings and agencies across the public sector and health care. In the second he considers why some groups fail and offers practical and helpful ideas and insights to guide agencies and groupworkers to think and plan more systemically, and provides a series of clinical vignettes that facilitates each of these contexts and perspectives. There is also an expanded section on how to plan and conduct the sophisticated art of co-working and again a series of clinical vignettes that illustrate best practice. Working More Creatively with Groups is well known to countless social workers, psychologists, teachers and community workers and many other professionals who utilize and employ groupwork in their practice. This new edition not only provides the basic guide to groupwork but also shows how to move on to more in-depth and intensive work.
Working on the Frontline of Mental Health: A CBT Therapist’s Casebook
by Steve ShewardWorking on the Frontline of Mental Health is an account of the day-to-day work in psychological therapies, highlighting not only the complexities patients present but also their remarkable and moving stories of recovery after many years of adversity. Steve Sheward, a CBT therapist working on the frontline in the NHS and private practice, presents an overview of different psychological presentations, including depression, anxiety, PTSD, OCD, and panic disorder, amongst others. Each chapter provides a detailed description of the latest cognitive behavioural therapy approaches used to help clients overcome psychological challenges which is paired with compelling case studies that demonstrate their application. The book also outlines the challenges of continuing to deliver therapy during the COVID pandemic, as well as the demands placed upon the profession and the psychological challenges experienced by therapists. This book will be of interest to a variety of mental health professionals, especially those trained in CBT, along with those who have personal experience with mental health problems.
Working on the Frontline of Mental Health: A CBT Therapist’s Casebook
by Steve ShewardWorking on the Frontline of Mental Health is an account of the day-to-day work in psychological therapies, highlighting not only the complexities patients present but also their remarkable and moving stories of recovery after many years of adversity. Steve Sheward, a CBT therapist working on the frontline in the NHS and private practice, presents an overview of different psychological presentations, including depression, anxiety, PTSD, OCD, and panic disorder, amongst others. Each chapter provides a detailed description of the latest cognitive behavioural therapy approaches used to help clients overcome psychological challenges which is paired with compelling case studies that demonstrate their application. The book also outlines the challenges of continuing to deliver therapy during the COVID pandemic, as well as the demands placed upon the profession and the psychological challenges experienced by therapists. This book will be of interest to a variety of mental health professionals, especially those trained in CBT, along with those who have personal experience with mental health problems.
Working Out: The Psychology of Sport and Exercise (The Psychology of Everyday Life)
by Justine J. ReelWritten by a leading expert in the field of sport science, this motivational text provides a thorough overview of fitness and exercise psychology as it relates to everyday life.A title in the Psychology of Everyday Life series, this unique book addresses the connections between sport and exercise psychology and life outside of competitive endeavors—from definitions, theories, and applications to the real-life issues affecting athletes. It provides an accessible overview of sport and exercise psychology that enables readers to apply effective sport performance and exercise psychology concepts to their own lives, regardless of whether they pursue athletic endeavors or not. Covering topics that range from goalsetting to motivation to personality, this book can also serve to inspire readers to create a personal activity program based on achievable goals and realistic expectations, regardless of starting point or desired outcomes.Author Justine J. Reel shares fascinating insights into the world of physical fitness and its associated behaviors, including why athletes who adopt a task-oriented approach will show a stronger work ethic and more motivation than athletes who focus on outcomes, what is prompting the spread of sport psychology to other parts of the world, why more and more athletes are at risk for developing eating disorders, and who social physique anxiety afflicts. The book also presents various viewpoints and debates on current controversies in the field of sport and exercise.
Working Out: The Psychology of Sport and Exercise (The Psychology of Everyday Life)
by Justine J. ReelWritten by a leading expert in the field of sport science, this motivational text provides a thorough overview of fitness and exercise psychology as it relates to everyday life.A title in the Psychology of Everyday Life series, this unique book addresses the connections between sport and exercise psychology and life outside of competitive endeavors—from definitions, theories, and applications to the real-life issues affecting athletes. It provides an accessible overview of sport and exercise psychology that enables readers to apply effective sport performance and exercise psychology concepts to their own lives, regardless of whether they pursue athletic endeavors or not. Covering topics that range from goalsetting to motivation to personality, this book can also serve to inspire readers to create a personal activity program based on achievable goals and realistic expectations, regardless of starting point or desired outcomes.Author Justine J. Reel shares fascinating insights into the world of physical fitness and its associated behaviors, including why athletes who adopt a task-oriented approach will show a stronger work ethic and more motivation than athletes who focus on outcomes, what is prompting the spread of sport psychology to other parts of the world, why more and more athletes are at risk for developing eating disorders, and who social physique anxiety afflicts. The book also presents various viewpoints and debates on current controversies in the field of sport and exercise.
Working Positively with Personality Disorder in Secure Settings: A Practitioner's Perspective (The Wiley Series in Personality Disorders #5)
by Phil Willmot Neil GordonWorking Positively with Personality Disorder in Secure Settings provides a positive, compassionate and evidence-based guide to working with patients with personality disorders. Unique in both its coverage and in its positive and evidence-based approach to working with patients with personality disorders Written with a practical focus by experienced practitioners in the field Offers a broad approach, with contributions from forensic and clinical psychologists, nurses, and therapists Covers therapy and therapeutic relationships, and issues of supervision, workforce development, treatment evaluation, team dynamics and managing boundaries Includes a strong patient focus and a number of personal accounts from patients who have received therapy themselves